by Karin Albert
Chinese rock landscapes have gained a quickly growing number of admirers in the West. Possessed of unobtrusive elegance, they quietly guide the viewer into a world of tranquillity and natural harmony. The magic spell cast by miniature landscapes is akin to the wonderment generated by bonsai. In fact, the Chinese concept of 'penjing' embraces both art forms. 'Penjing' denotes a natural scenery ('jing') in a pot or on a tray ('pen'). The artistic medium may be one, two or a group of trees or other plant material, or one or several pieces of rock. The underlying idea remains the same. Furthermore, both variants of penjing are guided by similar aesthetic considerations, deeply imbedded in an art theory which evolved over a time period exceeding a thousand years.
Due to the tremendous size of the country and the dominance of mountaineous terrain, China has enjoyed an abundance of attractive minerals inspiring the artistic mind. It is no wonder, then, that rocks entered China's fine arts as major elements many centuries ago. Indeed, rock landscapes are but one manifestation of a long-standing romance with the mineral kingdom. Rock penjing developed in close connection with garden art, and both art forms grew from identical roots. This article seeks to place miniature landscapes into the larger context of China's fine arts, to explore the common ground linking rock penjing and garden art, and to shed some light onto the Chinese preoccupation with rocks in general.
In today's China, about 30 different kinds of rock are used for the creation of penjing. The most common types are various kinds of sandstone as well as pumice, stalactite, a kind of shale called Axe-cut Rock, Stone Bamboo Shoot Rock and Ying Rock, the latter named after the county in Guangdong Province where it is mined. Rather than employing scientific names, the Chinese have preferred to choose names for their rocks which either reflect their origin or depict some unique feature.
The aesthetic effects attained by these different kinds of rock vary tremendously, since the artist is bound by the principle of allowing the raw material and its inherent properties guide him throughout the creative process,seeking to keep artificial shaping to a minimum. More conspicuous, however, are the common traits shared by all rock landscapes of superior quality.
Minute attention is paid to the texture and natural striations of the rock in addition to its contours. Whether or not the rock material is chosen wisely by a person of sure aesthetic taste has a strong bearing on the end result. Never are rocks of different types combined in one penjing. If the composition requires the fusion of several pieces of identical rock, the artist goes to great lengths to ensure that the furrows of all pieces link up harmoniously. This emphasis placed on rock texture and its coordination derives from Chinese painting theory. Over the centuries, a multitude of brushstrokes have been devised to paint mountains and hills which appear full of life. Penjing artists seek to work with rocks whose natural grain achieves an aesthetic effect similar to that of a certain brushstroke. The names given to some rocks underline this striking parallel. For instance, a rock frequently encountered in penjing, the Axe-cut Rock, owes its name to the fact that the vertical slates which break off when the rock is hammered on match the lines of the Axe-cut stroke.
Rock landscapes convey a sense of infinity, generating the feeling of wide open spaces in which the human mind has room to grow and to meander. Perspective is gained by skillful composition. Rocks are arranged with a multitude of layers. Twisting lines create depth. Large mountains in the front are set off by smaller peaks placed toward the back. Small clay ornaments, too, play a crucial role in creating an illusion of large distances. A tiny pagoda on a hill appears to greet from afar, a small sailboat makes an expanse of water appear yet more vast.
The penjing artist does not seek to create a realistic landscape, a miniature replica of any particular place. A superior piece will not overwhelm the viewer with an excessive amount of detail. Instead, the artistic emphasis is on suggestiveness and implicit meaning. Just like in landscape painting, the artist provides a generous amount of empty space, spurring the viewer's imagination, inviting him to share in the creative process and to become part of it.
Although the practice of grouping rocks together to form a landscape dates back several centuries, rock penjing as we know them today are a fairly recent creation. Several decades ago, artists in Shanghai began to experiment with new styles, infusing a traditional art with new vitality. Shanghai emerged as the leading center of rock landscapes. The use of white marble trays of rectangular or oval shape instead of the deeper terra cotta or glazed clay pots employed previously has been one of the most crucial innovations. The low rim of the tray exposes the lower part of the rocks, opening up entirely new possibilities of artistic expression. The flat tray reinforces the sense of depth. The white marble adds elegance. Furthermore, its color underlines the link between penjing and painting: Both arts are created against a white background.
Historical records indicate that the practice of arranging rocks as miniature mountains in a container dates from the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), possibly earlier. In many ways, rock penjing may be viewed as an extension of the mountain and water scenes encountered in Chinese garden art. Rocks forming mountains or grottoes, contrasted by water, are an indispensible element in a classical Chinese garden, undoubtedly one of the most unique contributions the Chinese have made to the field of garden construction. They appeared in gardens as early as the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.-220 A.D.) and were borne from the desire to recreate and enjoy Nature and natural phenomena in one's immediate surroundings. A Chinese garden is a carefully composed microcosm mirroring the macrocosm. A rock penjing is a diminutive and more abstract version of a garden.
Rocks have not only served as raw material in the creation of landscapes. Curiously shaped stones suggestive of spirits, dragons or living creatures have intrigued the Chinese since the very dawn of their civilization and were a frequent theme in early folklore. The appreciation of minerals as an abstract form of art reached a first climax during the Tang era (618-906 A.D.), when unusual rocks became collector's items and were celebrated in poems and literary essays. The passion intensified in succeeding centuries. The search for the best rocks under the sun launched by the Song Dynasty emperor Hui Zong exemplifies the prevailing mood of that period. Hui Zong entrusted a special commissioner with this momentuous task, and that man went about it with exceptional zeal and utter disregard for the needs of the local population. The hauling of the chosen rocks to the capital enjoyed priority over all other traffic. Because of internal strife, however, some of the outstanding boulders chosen for the emperor's delectation had to remain close to their place of origin, the heartland of China's garden culture, and they may still be admired there today.
In garden art, peaks of outstanding quality have been treated as natural monuments. To this day, such specimens are displayed in open pavillions, along covered walkways or in a pond, amidst water. The most coveted of all garden rocks are Taihu peaks, named after the lake in Jiangsu Province (Tai Lake) from whose bottom they used to be 'harvested'. These boulders are limestone formations which owe their grotesque silhouettes, irregular cavities and worn surfaces to water erosion. They have been admired for their unusual contours, their eye-like holes, and their wealth of interrelated caverns, mutually connecting passageways which invite mental exploration.
While large pieces of rock with special appeal have been displayed in a garden setting, smaller stones have been brought indoors and placed on rosewood stands, gracing a scholar's study or parlor. The subtle art of rock appreciation, known in the West as 'suiseki', a transliteration of the Japanese term, has been an integral part of China's literati culture for well over a thousand years.
It is still very much alive today. Individual rocks or stones enjoyed for their unique natural beauty coexist with rock landscapes. Although similar in appeal to rock landscapes, these individual rock specimens are not regarded as a variation of penjing. A rock may constitute a 'jing', a natural scenery, in which case the term 'penjing' would be appropriate. It may also, however, call to mind a more abstract idea. Given the wider possibilities of artistic expression, the Chinese refer to table rocks as 'gong shi' or 'wan shi', "rocks to be admired" or "rocks to be collected".
Throughout the ages, rocks have been venerated in China for a number of reasons. Rocks have owed the special place accorded to them in the human heart to their shape, color, luster, or to the exquisite sound they emit when struck. Traditionally, rocks with weathered, eroded surfaces and attractive grain have been the most prized. They have been celebrated for their ability to symbolize human virtues or for the way they denote the ephemeral quality of life on this planet. They have fascinated man because they bear vivid testimony to the creative forces of heaven and earth. By virtue of their suggestive powers, superior pieces of rock have led the perceptive viewer beyond the narrow confines of his immediate reality into the realm of the intuitive and the indefinable, generating fresh insights into the nature of all being.
This article was first published in Bonsai Clubs International, Sept/Oct. 1988 issue.